Genetic identification employing DNA probes of variable number tandem repeat loci

ABSTRACT

The present invention is related to the identification of cloned DNA sequences that reveal individual multiallele loci. The loci are used in the process of the present invention to provide convenient and accurate genetic identification. A large number of clones that recognize VNTR loci have been isolated from a cosmid library and characterized.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 07/597,039, filed Oct. 15, 1990, now abandoned, which is divisional of application Ser. No. 07/307,820, filed Feb. 8, 1989, now U.S. Pat. No. 4,963,663, which is a continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 07/288,835, filed Dec. 23, 1988, now abandoned, which is a continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 07/282,141, filed Dec. 9, 1988, now abandoned, which is a continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 07/157,962, filed Feb. 18, 1988, now abandoned.

FIELD OF INVENTION

The present invention relates to methods and compositions for identifying human nucleic acid polymorphism. One application of the invention is determining the degree of similarity of individuals by comparing the nature of polymorphism of the individuals. Essentially, the nature of polymorphism in an individual serves as a tag or tracer of that individual. Particular applications include paternity testing, use in forensic medicine, disease diagnosis and determination of chimerism/mosaicism as in distinguishing zygosity or following transplantation.

BACKGROUND OF INVENTION

Population variation occurs by processes such as recombination and mutation. Variation can be found at the level of the organism, cell or cell component. Biological redundancy favors variation absent detriment to survival. For example, divergence of related nucleic acid sequences does not imply variability of the polypeptides those sequences encode.

The state of variability, particularly with reference to a protein or a nucleic acid, is known as polymorphism. Until recently, study of polymorphism focused on cell membrane proteins, serum-borne proteins or intracellular proteins. Applications include blood group typing, for example ABO or HLA, and isozyme analysis (Lewontin & Hubby, Genetics (1966) 54, 595). Those methods rely on amino acid changes that alter, for example, an antigenic determinant or molecular charge. But protein polymorphism may be `silent` because the amino acid substitution does not cause a change that is recognizable by those methods. That could occur if the substitution occurs at a site that is normally unexposed in the tertiary or quarternary structure of the protein.

Those limitations have been circumvented with the observation of polymorphism in nucleic acids. The eukaryotic genome is comprised of three classes of sequences--unique, moderately repeated and highly repeated. Generally, the three classes are interspersed throughout the genome. Many of those sequences are of unknown function and may not encode requisite RNAs or proteins. Of those sequences known to encode proteins, most are composites of coding and noncoding segments. Nucleic acid variation can occur for example because of codon degeneracy or in areas where lack of selection pressures permits a high degree of polymorphism as in pseudogenes, highly repeated sequences or in noncoding regions of structural genes.

Nucleic acid polymorphism may be detectable as single base changes within restriction sites. Wyman and White (Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S.A. (1980) 77, 6754) found a locus in the human genome in which polymorphism resulted from DNA rearrangement. Subsequently, it was determined that the mechanism responsible for the polymorphism was varying number of a repeat sequence at that locus. Other sites where polymorphism is due to copy number differences were found near the α globin genes (Higgs et al., Nucl Acids Res (1981) 9, 4213), insulin gene (Bell et al., Nature (1982) 295, 31), zeta-globin genes (Proudfoot et al., Cell (1982) 31, 553; Goodbourn et al., (Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S.A. (1983) 80, 5022), c-Ha-ras-1 locus (Capon et al., Nature (1983) 302, 33) and myoglobin gene (Weller et al., EMBO J (1984) 3, 439).

Glassberg (GB2135774A) disclosed a method for genetic identification of individuals by analysis of DNA length polymorphism detected with clones developed by Wyman & White, supra, and Capon et al., supra. With regard to the Wyman & White clone, the repeat unit is 3 bp which increases the likelihood of cross reactivity and the size of genomic fragments detected are 14 kb or larger. Size differences of large fragments are sometimes difficult to resolve in agarose gel electrophoresis. The fragment sizes detected with the Capon clone are smaller but there are few alleles at that locus and each of a third of the alleles is present at less than 1% in a population of 268 random individuals. (The value of a locus for identification purposes is related directly to the number of alleles and the frequency of each allele in the population.)

Jeffreys (GB2166445A) found that many polymorphic regions have a sequence in common, which he called the core sequence. He constructed concatamers of core or quasi-core sequences which were then cloned. When used as probes of genomic DNA, those clones hybridized to a plurality of fragments. The difficulty associated with those clones is interpretation of the complex hybridization pattern.

The utility of clones that detect highly polymorphic loci is evidenced by papers describing their applicability in the study of cancer (Thein et al., Br J Cancer (1987) 55, 353); in forensic medicine (Gill et al., Electrophoresis (1987) 8, 38; Kanter et al., J For Sci (1986) 31, 403; Giusti et al., J For Sci (1986) 31, 409); in zygosity determination (Motomura et al., Jpn J Hum Genet (1987) 32, 9; Jones et al., Eur J. Haematol (1987) 39, 144; Hill et al., Lancet (1985) ii, 1394); detection of chimerism (Wallace et al., Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol (1986) 51, 257; Knowlton et al., Blood (1986) 68, 378); in veterinary medicine (Morton et al., Vet Rec (1987) 121, 592; Jeffreys et al., Anim Genet (1987) 18, 1); in population studies (Wetton et al., Nature (1987) 327, 149); in linkage studies (Ponder et al., Henry Ford Hosp Med J (1987) 35, 161; Matthew et al., J Med Genet (1987) 24, 524); and for paternity testing (Jeffreys et al., Nature (1985 ) 316, 76; Jeffreys et al., Nature (1985) 316, 76).

Donis-Keller et al. (EP 0221633) disclosed methods and compositions useful for genotyping by analyzing RFLPs. The claimed clones carry unique sequence inserts and hybridize to unlinked loci. The clones fall into two categories. The first consists of clones that reveal base changes within a restriction site, and the second consists of clones that yield fragment length differences with at least three enzymes.

The above-described art suffer shortcomings. Generally, the clones hybridize to multiple fragments per sample. That complicates interpretation. Some clones arose from loci that are not highly multiallelic or many of the alleles are rare. That reduces their usefulness. Some of the clones hybridize with genomic fragments that tend to be large and difficult to resolve using standard filter hybridization. That demands genomic DNA with minimal degradation. Furthermore, assay conditions must be specific to minimize spurious cross-reactivity. Finally, each laboratory has a small set of clones to work with. Any one clone may be uninformative in a specific case. Moreover, in order to rule out variability due to de novo mutation, it is important to analyze more than one locus. It is preferable that the succeeding loci analyzed be unlinked to the first locus. Ideally, all loci analyzed are on different chromosomes. Thus, an improvement on the prior art would be a set of single locus clones consisting of a larger number of clones that detect multiallelic, heterozygous loci and are mapped.

A modification was disclosed by Jeffreys (GB2188323A) where he excised a band from a gel, cloned and used that insert as probe. That clone hybridizes to a single multiallelic locus and yields a blot that is easier to interpret. Jeffreys also screened a size-restricted library for recombinants carrying `core` sequences. Inserts from 5 positive plaques hybridized under high stringency to unique loci and provided blots that were easily interpretable. Nevertheless, the genomic fragments recognized were often large leading to problems with resolution and DNA quality.

Nakamura et al. (Science (1987) 235, 1616) named a genetic sequence that contains tandem repeats at a single locus a variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR) locus. They used oligonucleotides to screen a cosmid library for recombinants carrying VNTR sequences. Positive clones were used as probe to determine whether they hybridize to VNTR loci in the human genome, and if so, to assess the degree of heterozygosity at those loci.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The instant invention relates to methods and compositions for detecting polymorphic loci in the human genome. The invention teaches how to obtain nucleic acid clones that carry sequences that arose from or include a VNTR locus. The clones are screened to detect gene sequences that are highly heterozygous. Moreover, the clones are selected to detect unique VNTR loci dispersed throughout the genome.

VNTR clones can distinguish individuals based on the alleles carried at one or more loci in their genome. Thus, VNTR clones can be used for paternity determination, in forensic applications, zygosity determination, determining degree of inbreeding, pedigree analysis, gene mapping or any other application that requires identification of an organism, organ, tissue, cell, subcellular component, part thereof or degradative product thereof.

A number of VNTR clones have been characterized and are described below. Advantages of the VNTR clone set are the number of informative clones, characterization of the clones with respect to map location and degree of heterozygosity and in general the genomic fragments detected are of lower molecular weight. Small-sized alleles facilitate resolution, enable identification without filter hybridization and ensure robustness in their application.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 comprises a pair of autoradiograms. The films depict random screening of six unrelated individuals. Cosmids were used as probe.

FIG. 2 comprises an autoradiogram together with pedigree showing the results of a screening.

FIGS. 3a and 3b comprises a pair of autoradiograms showing the results of analyzing whether detected loci are multiallelic. The lanes contain DNA from unrelated individuals. pJCZ16.2 and cEFD52 were used. See Example 3 for details.

FIG. 4 is an autoradiogram showing the results of paternity testing using pJCZ3.1 and HinfI-digested DNA. The central three lanes containing two bands each are from left to right samples of the mother, fetus and purported father. See Example 7 for details.

FIG. 5 is an autoradiogram showing the results of paternity testing using pJCZ16.2 and HinfI-digested DNA. The central three lanes are from left to right samples from the mother, fetus and purported father. The numbers 0.018, 0.252 and 0.162 refer to frequency of the corresponding allele.

FIG. 6 is an autoradiogram showing the results of paternity testing using pYNH24 and AluI-digested DNA. From left to right the lanes contain moecular weight markers, DNA of the mother, DNA of the fetus and DNA of the purported father. The numbers 0.041, 0.032, 0.059 and 0.027 refer to frequencies of the corresponding alleles.

FIG. 7 comprises an ideogram and linkage maps of human chromosome 14. The genes PI and MCOC12 delimit that region which likely contains more genes than presented in the figure. D14S22, which is defined by pMLJ14, is 19 cM from PI and 2 cM from CMM62. At the bottom is a diagram showing the most likely gene order as determined from segregation analysis of those genes in varying combinations within families. The ratios bridging adjacent genes represent the odds that the presented gene order is real.

FIG. 8 comprises an ideogram and linkage maps of human chromosome 17. 144-D6(21) maps to 17p13, 3.6(11) maps to the centromeric region and KKA35(14) maps near the telomere of 17 q. At the bottom is a diagram showing the most likely gene order as determined from segregation analysis of those genes in varying combinations within families. The ratios bridging adjacent genes represent the odds that the presented gene order is real.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

All of the terms used in the specification and the claims are known to one skilled in the act. Nevertheless, in order to provide a clear and consistent understanding of the specification and the claims, including the scope given to such terms, the following definitions are provided:

Clone: A vector-insert (foreign nucleic acid) recombinant nucleic acid molecule.

Clone set: An assemblage of recombinant nucleic acid molecules.

cM: Unit of map length. Related to % recombination, θ (the probability of recombination), the value-recombination fraction×100, recombination frequency, crossover frequency.

Consensus: That which is held in common among an assemblage.

cXYZ: Is designation for a cosmid clone that hybridizes to the XYZ locus.

DpSq: Where D and S represent single copy DNA sequence, p is the number/letter of the chromosome to which the DNA maps (originated) and q is a counter. This symbol serves to identify a gene locus. Thus, if the X-linked gene locus known as XYZ is the first single copy DNA sequence mapped on the X chromosome, DXS1 is a synonym for XYZ.

Library or bank: A plurality of recombinant clones, said clones carry portions of foreign nucleic acid that originate in an organism, cell, chromosome or nucleic acid that in its entirely is too large to be cloned, said portions of foreign nucleic acid, when pieced together, are considered statistically to equal the starting material from which the pieces were obtained.

Mapping: Localizing a nucleic acid sequence within the genome to a chromosome, a region thereof, or within the nucleic acid that comprises a chromosome. Common techniques and tools of gene mapping include linkage analysis, test crosses, somatic cell hybrids, recombinant inbred strains and sequencing.

Nucleic Acid Fragment: A nucleotide polymer that can include an oligonucleotide but generally is longer than an oligonucleotide. As used herein, a nucleic acid fragment is intended to include a clone, the VNTR-containing fragment of a clone, a nucleic acid having substantial sequence homology to said VNTR-containing fragment and a nucleic acid which is capable of hybridizing to the single locus specified by the clone.

Oligo or oligonucleotide: A polymer of a few nucleotide bases.

Polymorphic locus or gene: A nucleic acid sequence localized in the diploid genome wherein the homologous copies are not identical.

pXYZ: Is designation for a plasmid clone that hybridizes to the XYZ locus.

Substantial sequence homology: Substantial functional and/or structural equivalence between sequences of nucleotides. Functional and/or structural differences between sequences having substantial sequence homology will be de minimis.

VNTR locus or region or sequence or gene: A nucleic acid tract that comprises multiple copies of a unit generally organized tandemly wherein said unit can be from 3 base pairs up through 40 base pairs or more in length, said tract may contain unique sequences interspersed between clusters of tandem repeats or flanking tandem repeats.

XYZ: Is a symbol that identifies a locus, also known as gene symbol. In this example, the name of the gene is XYZ.

The instant invention relates to methods and compositions for detecting polymorphic loci in humans. The nature of the loci carried by an individual is revealed by reacting VNTR clones with genomic DNA of that individual. That reaction is manifest commonly as a pattern of bands on a membrane support. Thus, a pattern is characteristic of an individual and patterns of individuals can be compared to determine if the individuals share a common origin.

The VNTR clones that fall within the scope of the instant invention detect unique loci dispersed throughout the human genome. The loci are polymorphic and the variability arises primarily by differences in copy number of tandem repeats. Those loci are called VNTR loci (Nakamura et al., supra). The instant invention teaches methods for identifying and producing in reagent quantities clones from VNTR loci. The value of a clone produced in the spirit of the invention increases directly with the number of alleles housed at that locus and the frequency of each allele. Ideally, one would hope for a multiallelic series with each allele present at the same frequency in a population. That goal is seldom met. In order to achieve a comparable degree of resolution, an alternative is to combine information from several, preferably unlinked loci. A discussion of gene mapping, recombinant DNA and population genetics may be found in Botstein et al. (Am J Hum Genet (1980), 32, 314).

Techniques which are utilized to obtain VNTR clones in accordance with the present invention are well known in the art. Suitable techniques are described in Molecular Cloning (1982) by Maniatis et al. and in Volumes 65, 68, 100, 101 and 152 of Methods in Enzymology. A more detailed description of procedures followed in the instant invention may be found also in Wyman and White, supra, Litt and White (Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S.A. (1985) 82, 6206) and Nakamura et al., supra.

As known in the art, hybridization with oligonucleotides requires well-defined sequences and assay conditions. Change of a single nucleotide or a degree at wash can alter the fidelity of recognition in a hybridization assay, as when using an oligo to probe a genomic digest for a unique sequence. On the other hand, when using an oligo to screen a library, particularly in the spirit of the instant invention, the goal is to obtain a reasonable number of positive clones. Thus, homology requirements are reduced, i.e. oligos may vary at one or more nucleotides or stringencies lowered to retain mismatched duplexes. VNTR clones may be obtained by screening a genomic library with oligonucleotides configured after known consensus sequences found at VNTR loci. Sequences of some of the oligos used are presented in Table 1.

                  TABLE 1                                                          ______________________________________                                         Oligonucleotides                                                                                               Temper-                                                                        ature                                                                          (°C.) of:                               Oligonucleotide                                                                          Sequence              H*    W**                                      ______________________________________                                         Zeta-globin                                                                              TGGGGCACAGGNTGTGAG    42    48                                       (18 mer)                                                                       Insulin (14 mer)                                                                         ACAGGGGTGTGGGG        30    37                                       Myoglobin-1                                                                              GGAGGTGGGCAGGAAG      37    44                                       (16 mer)                                                                       Myoglobin-2                                                                              GGAGGCTGGAGGAG        37    42                                       (14 mer)                                                                       HBV-1     GGAGTTGGGGGAGGAG      37    44                                       (16 mer)                                                                       HBV-2     GGACTGGGAGGAGTTGGGGG  50    60                                       (20 mer)                                                                       HBV-3     GGTGAAGCANAGGTG       37    42                                       (15 mer)                                                                       HBV-4     GAGAGGGGTGTAGAG       37    42                                       (15 mer)                                                                       HBV-5     GGTGTAGAGAGGGGT       37    42                                       (15 mer)                                                                       YNZ22     CTCTGGGTGTCGTGC       37    42                                       (15 mer)                                                                       ______________________________________                                          *H is temperature of hybridization                                             **W is temperature of wash                                               

Initially, a human genomic phage library was screened with the myoglobin-1 16 mer. Low stringency conditions were chosen for hybridization to detect hybrids when homology between the oligonucleotide and genomic sequences was relatively low. About 50 positive clones per genome equivalent (250,000 clones) were obtained. However, when used to probe restriction digests of DNA from unrelated individuals, none revealed VNTR polymorphism. Because phage having repeated DNA sequences do not grow well in recA⁺ hosts, it appeared possible that the library constructed in recA⁺ bacteria had lost many phage that contained VNTR sequences.

Screening of a human cosmid library growing in recA⁻ bacteria was more productive. Although the same conditions as for phage screening were used, three times as many positive clones per genome equivalent were obtained from the cosmid library as from the phage library (Table 2). As there are some similarities in sequence among the oligonucleotides set forth in Table 1, it is important to note that most of the cosmid clones identified with one oligonucleotide are different from those identified with another oligonucleotide. Fewer than 4% of cosmid clones hybridized with more than one of the oligonucleotides.

                  TABLE 2                                                          ______________________________________                                         Summary of Screening for VNTR Polymorphism                                                                            Site                                                     Clones                Poly-                                   Screening                                                                              +        Test-           Per-  mor-                                    Oligo   Clones*  ed**    VNTR*** cent  phism                                   ______________________________________                                         Zeta-globin                                                                            180      57      12      21    20(6)                                   Insulin 220      20      4       20     8(1)                                   Myoglobin-                                                                             150      65      8       12    19(8)                                   Myoglobin-                                                                              18      18      8       44     8(2)                                   2                                                                              HBV-1   200      75      13      17     38(13)                                 HBV-2    40      15      2       13    10(3)                                   HBV-1    50      26      6       23     6(2)                                   HBV-2   150      58      15      26     40(19)                                 and 3                                                                          YNZ22    38      38      9       24     25(11)                                 Totals  1046     372     77      21****                                                                               174(65)                                 ______________________________________                                          *Screened were one genomic equivalent (75,000 colonies) to two genomic         equivalents for each probe. The number of positive clones per 75,000           colonies is shown.                                                             **The number of clones that were hybridized to a panel of human genomic        DNAS.                                                                          ***The number of clones that hybridized to a VNTR locus.                       ****Mean value.                                                                 The proportion of VNTR clones among the tested cosmids.                         The number of cosmids that showed site polymorphisms with two or more        restriction enzymes is shown in parentheses.                             

Several of the VNTR clones were sequenced using standard methodologies, generally the dideoxy technique of Sanger et al. (Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S.A. (1980) 74, 5463). A somewhat variable consensus sequence was identified. That sequence is GGGNNGTGGGG or in a broader sense an almost invariant sequence of GNNNGTGGG or GNNGTGGG applies. The exceptions to that general rule are two VNTR loci with consensus sequences having an AT-rich motif. Those loci are linked to apolipoprotein B and collagen Type II as listed in Table 3.

                                      TABLE 3                                      __________________________________________________________________________     Comparison of the Consensus                                                    Sequences of VNTR Loci                                                         Locus/                                                                         Linked Locus                                                                          Sequence                                                                __________________________________________________________________________     Zeta-  GGTTGTGAGTGGGGCACA                                                      globin                                                                         YNZ2   GAGGCTCATGGGGCACA                                                       YNZ132 TGCAGGCTGTGGGTGTGATGGGTGA                                               Insulin                                                                               ACAGGGGTGTGGGG                                                          YNI10  CTGGGGGTGTGGGTGCTGCTCCAGGCTGTCAGATGCTCAC                                THH59  CTGGGGAGCCTGGGGACTTTCCACACC                                             YNH24  CAGGAGCAGTGGGAAGTACAGTGGGGTTGTT                                         Consensus                                                                             GGGNNGTGGGG or GNNNGTGGG or GNNGTGGG                                    Harvey-                                                                               GGGGGAGTGTGGCGTCCCCTGGAGAGAA                                            ras(1)                                                                         p3.4BHI(2)                                                                            AACAGTGCGTGGGCCACGTGAGCGGAGCAGGCTC                                      α-globin(3)                                                                     AACAGCGACACGGGGGG                                                       D14S1  NGG                                                                     Apolipo-                                                                              TTTTATAATTAATA                                                          protein B(4)                                                                   Collagen                                                                              CAATATAGATAATATATACCTATATATTATTATA                                      type II(5)                                                                     __________________________________________________________________________      (1)Capon et al., supra.                                                        (2)Silva, personal communication.                                              (3)Jarman et al., EMBO J (1986) 5, 1857.                                       (4)Knott et al., Nucl Acids Res (1986) 14, 9215.                               (5)Stoker et al., ibid. (1985) 13, 4613                                  

The sequencing data confirmed that variability arises in part from differences in the number of repeats. For example, partial sequences were obtained for three alleles at the D17S30 locus (YNZ22). The repeat unit is 70 bp. The 6A allele contained four copies of the repeat, the 3A allele contained three copies of the repeat and the D7 allele contained two copies of the repeat. All repeat units of the three alleles had identical 70 bp units.

But identity of repeat units need not be absolute. An allele of the D1S80 locus (MCT118) was sequenced and ten copies of a tandem repeat unit were found. The sequences of the ten units are as follows:

1) CCCAAGG-AAGACAGA

2) CCACAGGCAAGGAGGA

3) CCACCGGAAAGGAAGA

4) CCACCGGAAAGGAAGA

5) CCACCGGAAAGGAAGA

5) CCACAGGCAAGGAGGA

6) CCACCGGAAAGGAAGA

7) CCACCGGCAAGGAGGA

8) CCACCGGCAAGGAGGA

10) CCACCAGGAAGGAGGA

In that case, the repeat units are not reproduced exactly and another order of variability is imposed. The changes include deletion of a base in the first unit and transitions or transversions.

Because of the relatedness of VNTR clones, it is likely to obtain VNTR clones using oligonucleotides that are configured after the consensus sequence. Thus, an oligo of 14 or more bases containing a consensus or quasi-consensus sequence with the remaining bases chosen at random but preferably guanine or thymidine or cytosine can be used to screen a library for VNTR clones. The degree of sequence homology between an oligonucleotide and the consensus can be 50% or lower and it will remain possible to obtain VNTR clones from a library. In one experiment, an oligonucleotide of alternating T and G residues pulled out VNTR clones, one of which is pMCT118.

Because VNTR loci are dispersed throughout the genome, VNTR clones can be obtained randomly from a library by selecting and using clones as probe for a panel of genomic DNAs as described below. However, that can be a tedious and costly exercise with low return. An alternative is to use a library containing DNA from only a portion of the genome, as for example, a chromosome-specific library. In that case, a targeted portion of the genome is examined and the library contains fewer clones. Somatic cell hybrids (described below) or isolated chromosomes are a suitable source of human DNA for library construction. cTBQ7 was obtained in that fashion from a library containing somatic cell hybrid DNA wherein the only human chromosomes of the hybrid cell line are the 10 and Y. That cosmid clone was selected at random and used as probe of a panel of genomic DNAs from unrelated individuals to determine whether the clone hybridized to a polymorphic locus on either chromosome 10 or Y.

Candidate cosmid clones were used as probe for a panel of unrelated human genomic DNAs. Clones that hybridized under high stringency to a single polymorphic locus were subcloned, although that procedure was not entirely necessary. Subcloning entailed essentially fragmentation of the insert and finding the fragment or fragments that produced the same hybridization pattern as that of the originating cosmid clone. The trimmed fragments were subcloned generally into plasmids. In order to determine the degree of heterozygosity at the VNTR locus recognized by a clone, a larger number of DNAs from unrelated humans were analyzed. That analysis provided not only a measure of heterozygosity but data on the number of alleles, allele size (allele size is inferred from band size) and allele frequency. The DNAs were digested with several restriction enzymes to determine the enzyme producing the largest number of alleles and the smallest-sized alleles.

Sequence homology requirements change when using longer nucleic acid fragments as probe for unique sequences because the length and relative content of G/C pairs of the fragment contribute to hybridization kinetics and, thus, fidelity of pairing (see for example Wetmur and Davidson, J Mol Biol (1968) 31, 349). Hence, if one is performing an evolutional survey of a gene sequence, hybridization conditions would be modified to accommodate sequence divergence due to genetic drift. (Nevertheless, the function of the sequences and the polypeptides encoded are conserved.) On the other hand, if the desire is to identify sequences at a particular locus, hybridization conditions are modified so that a high degree of complementarity of the hybridizing components is required to maintain the duplex. VNTR regions impose additional considerations in determining requisite sequence homology. Copy number variation contributes significantly to heterozygosity but often not all repeat units at a locus are identical. Thus, nucleic acid fragments that differ slightly in sequence may nevertheless hybridize to the same locus. Here, sequence homology may be defined in terms of those nucleic acid fragments that hybridize to a unique VNTR locus for indeed it is the VNTR locus and its detection that are paramount to the instant invention.

The VNTR clones can be fixed to the human genome map. There are several mapping techniques available, including linkage analysis and use of somatic cell hybrids. Many of the VNTR clones were mapped by linkage analysis, i.e. determining the inheritance of the marker in large pedigrees and comparing the pattern of presence/absence or size of the marker in question with those of loci previously studied in those same pedigrees. The power of linkage assessment increases with sample size and the number of loci studied within individual pedigrees. If patterns match perfectly, one can infer tight linkage of the marker with the anchoring gene(s) or identity of the marker with an anchoring gene. If the pattern match varies, one can infer partial linkage and map distances can be determined. It is preferred to use more than one anchoring gene. For a review of segregation, linkage analysis and the statistical bases of those treatments, see Cavalli-Sforza & Bodmer, The Genetics of Human Populations (1971) .

Somatic cell hybrids are useful for rapid localization of a gene to a chromosome or chromosomal region. Weiss & Green, Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S.A. (1967) 58, 1104. Heterokaryons tend to segregate chromosomes randomly, except for the chromosomal region carrying the selectable marker. Thus, a panel of cell lines, each carrying one or more human chromosomes can be maintained. Panels are configured so that synteny with any one chromosome is determinable. The panel is screened for expression of or presence of a gene and association with particular chromosome(s) is ascertained. THH59 was mapped to chromosome 17 using somatic cell hybrids. Subsequently, linkage of THH59 and TK1 was found in family study. In addition, it is possible to obtain hybrid cell lines that carry human chromosomal fragments or translocations. If those rearrangements are identified, then linkage to a chromosomal region is possible. A similar technology for chromosomal localization is to use a panel of DNAs obtained from flow-sorted chromosomes. Deaven et al., Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol (1986) 51, 159.

Family studies are particularly valuable for mapping and for clone identification. Cell lines established from members of extended multigeneration families serve as mapping and reference reagents with respect to alleles at a VNTR locus. Thus, the inheritance of specific alleles at a locus among selected members of a large kindred is a diagnostic tool for distinguishing a clone for that locus, derivatives of that clone, or clones with substantial sequence homology that hybridize to sequences at the locus. Such cell lines are available from the Human Genetic Mutant Cell Repository in Camden, N.J., or from the CEPH in Paris, France. For example, family 982, Utah Pedigree K-1331 represents a three-generation family and cell lines have been established from 15 members, including maternal and paternal grandparents, parents and nine children. To confirm that a subclone, new preparation of a clone or clone sent to another laboratory maintains specificity, it is used as probe for the cell line DNAs of Family 982 and the fragment pattern obtained is compared to the master pattern found when DNAs obtained from the family members themselves were analyzed with the original clone.

As of the date of the instant application, 45 clones suitable for the purposes detailed in the specification have been found. Information on the clones is summarized in Table 4 and detailed more specifically in Tables 5-35. In Tables 5-34, the name of the locus to which the clone hybridizes is denoted within parentheses in the title of the tables. For example, in Table 5, pYNH24 hybridizes to the D2S44 locus found on chromosome 2. In other words, the insert of pYNH24 originated from the genomic DNA at the D2S44 locus of human chromosome 2. Samples of E. coli harboring representative VNTR clones have been deposited with The American Type Culture Collection, 12301 Parklawn Drive, Rockville, Md., as indicated herein. Deposit is for the purpose of completeness but is not intended to limit the scope of the present invention to the materials deposited since the description as further illustrated by the Examples fully enables the practice of the instant invention. Access to the cultures will be available during the pendency of the patent application to those determined by the Commissioner of Patents and Trademarks to be entitled thereto. All restrictions on availability of said cultures to the public will be removed irrevocably upon the grant of the instant application and said cultures will remain available permanently during the term of said patent. Should any culture become nonviable or be destroyed, it will be replaced.

                  TABLE 4                                                          ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clones                                                                                               ATCC    Deposit                                     Clone     Enz      Alleles Number  Date (d/m/y)                                ______________________________________                                         pYNH24    HaeIII    31     57570   1-4-87                                      pCMM101   HaeIII   >20     59372   14-4-88                                     pYNZ22    HinfI    >10     57574   1-4-87                                      cEFD64    HinfI    >10     57650   11-6-87                                     pJCZ3.1   HinfI      7     57656   11-6-87                                     cYNA13    MspI     >10     59364   14-4-88                                     pCMM86    RsaI     >10     59682   13-12-88                                    pEKMDA2I  AluI       8     57554   1-4-87                                      pJCZ16.2  HinfI    >10     57658   11-6-87                                     pJCZ67    RsaI     >10     59362   14-4-88                                     pMHZ47    HaeIII   >10     59366   14-4-88                                     pMLJ14    HaeIII   >20     57578   1-4-87                                      pCMM6     TaqI     >10     59368   14-4-88                                     pCMM66    PstI     >10     59370   14-4-88                                     pCMI327   PvuII    >10     59680   13-12-88                                    cEFD52    PvuII    >10     59374   14-4-88                                     pEFD139   PstI     >10     59688   13-12-88                                    pRMU3     PvuII    >10     57564   1-4-87                                      pMCT118   HinfI     17     59668   13-12-88                                    pEFD126.3 HinfI      6     57624   11-6-87                                     cCMM77    PstI      >7     59690   13-12-88                                    pMCOB17   HinfI      7     59686   13-12-88                                    cYNA4     MspI      >7     59672   13-12-88                                    pMHZ10    HinfI      6     59674   13-12-88                                    pMHZ13    PstI       8     59278   29-1-88                                     cTBQ7     TaqI       8     59676   13-12-88                                    cKKA39    RsaI       7     59678   13-12-88                                    pYNZ21    MspI       8     59684   13-12-88                                    pTHH33    RsaI     >10     59670   13-12-88                                    pTHH59    PvuII      6     57556   1-4-87                                      cMLJ205   MspI     >10     59692   13-12-88                                    cMCT4                      67881   2-2-89                                      cMCT14                     67881   2-2-89                                      cMCT15                     67881   2-2-89                                      cMCT32                     67881   2-2-89                                      cMCT96                     67881   2-2-89                                      cMCT103                    67881   2-2-89                                      cMCT105                    67881   2-2-89                                      cMCT113                    67881   2-2-89                                      cMCT117                    67881   2-2-89                                      cMCT127                    67881   2-2-89                                      cMCT129                    67881   2-2-89                                      cMCT136                    67881   2-2-89                                      cMCT144                    67881   2-2-89                                      CMCT164                    67881   2-2-89                                      ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 5                                                          ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clone pYNH24 on Chromosome 2 (D2S44)                                      ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: A 2.0 kb MspI fragment from cYNH24                         isolated by HBV-2 oligonucleotide was subcloned into the                       AccI site of pUC18.                                                            Polymorphism: MspI identifies a >30 allele VNTR                                polymorphism with bands between 1.0-5.0 kb. TaqI                               BglII, PvuII, PstI and BamHI also detect the poly-                             morphism. Not polymorphic with RsaI.                                           Frequency: With MspI, 97% heterozygosity was observed                          in 120 unrelated Caucasians.                                                   Chromosomal Localization: YNH24 has been assigned to                           chromosome 2 by multipoint linkage analysis with loci                          (APOB, D2S6) known to span that region.                                        Mendelian Inheritance: Codominant segregation of the                           MspI RFLP was observed in 44 three generation families.                        Other Comments: RFLPs were observed under normal                               hybridization and wash stringencies. pYNH24 contains                           single sites for EcoRI and HindIII; an EcoRI/HindIII                           double digest yields two fragments of 2.7 and 2.1 kb;                          BglII digestion yields 3.6 kb and 1.1 kb fragments; and                        PvuII yields three fragments of 2.3, 1.7, and 0.8 kb.                          ______________________________________                                                          Allele  Frequency                                             ______________________________________                                         HaeIII 0.5-6.0 kb                                                                               1       0.005                                                                  2       0.005                                                                  3       0.014                                                                  4       0.005                                                                  5       0.009                                                                  6       0.045                                                                  7       0.041                                                                  8       0.059                                                                  9       0.059                                                                  10      0.068                                                                  11      0.032                                                                  12      0.014                                                                  13      0.005                                                                  14      0.059                                                                  15      0.045                                                                  16      0.027                                                                  17      0.073                                                                  18      0.050                                                                  19      0.091                                                                  20      0.045                                                                  21      0.032                                                                  22      0.055                                                                  23      0.055                                                                  24      0.023                                                                  25      0.009                                                                  26      0.014                                                                  27      0.018                                                                  28      0.018                                                                  29      0.014                                                                  30      0.009                                                                  31      0.005                                                 ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 6                                                          ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clone pCMM101 on Chromosome 14 q (D14S13)                                 ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: A 2.2 kb MspI fragment isolated by                         the myoglobin-2 oligonucleotide inserted into the AccI                         site of pUC18.                                                                 Polymorphism: HaeIII detects a >20 allele polymorphism.                        Frequency: With HinfI, 84% heterozygosity was observed                         in 120 Caucasians.                                                             Chromosomal Localization: Assigned to chromosome 14.                           Mendelian Inheritance: Codominant segregation observed                         in 60 three generation families.                                               ______________________________________                                                          Allele  Frequency                                             ______________________________________                                         HinfI 1.5-9.5 kb 1       0.013                                                                  2       0.031                                                                  3       0.009                                                                  4       0.027                                                                  5       0.013                                                                  6       0.013                                                                  7       0.018                                                                  8       0.027                                                                  9       0.031                                                                  10       0.0045                                                                11      0.031                                                                  12      0.013                                                                  13      0.022                                                                  14      0.018                                                                  15      0.022                                                                  16      0.045                                                                  17      0.040                                                                  18      0.031                                                                  19       0.0045                                                                20      0.058                                                                  21      0.036                                                                  22      0.067                                                                  23      0.036                                                                  24      0.063                                                                  25      0.099                                                                  26      0.076                                                                  27      0.058                                                                  28      0.076                                                                  29      0.013                                                                  30      0.009                                                                  31      0.031                                                 ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 7                                                          ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clone pYNZ22 on Chromosome 17 p (D17S30)                                  ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: A 2.7 kb BamHI fragment from cYNZ22                        isolated by zeta-globin oligonucleotide was subcloned                          into the BamHI site of pBR322.                                                 Polymorphism: MspI identifies a more than ten allele                           VNTR polymorphism with bands between 0.5 kb and 1.3 kb.                        TaqI, RsaI, BamHI, PstI and HindIII also detect the                            polymorphism. BglII and EcoRI do not optimally resolve                         the polymorphism.                                                              Frequency: 86% heterozygosity was observed in 120                              unrelated Caucasians with HinfI.                                               Chromosomal Localization: The locus was assigned to                            chromosome 17 p by multipoint linkage analysis with loci                       (D17S1, MYH2, D17Z1) known to span that region.                                Mendelian Inheritance: Codominant segregation has been                         observed in 30 three generation families.                                      Other Comments: RFLPs were observed under normal                               conditions of hybridization and washing. pYNZ22                                contains unique sites for HindIII, EcoRI and SalI. PstI                        liberates 4.3 kb and 2.7 kb fragments. An independent                          screen of a cosmid library identified cJCZ16.2 which was                       subsequently shown to have substantial sequence homology                       with pYNZ22.                                                                   ______________________________________                                                          Allele  Frequency                                             ______________________________________                                         HinfI 0.5-2.0 kb 1       0.005                                                                  2       0.009                                                                  3       0.045                                                                  4       0.050                                                                  5       0.041                                                                  6       0.050                                                                  7       0.072                                                                  8       0.032                                                                  9       0.018                                                                  10      0.018                                                                  11      0.014                                                                  12      0.099                                                                  13      0.252                                                                  14      0.162                                                                  15      0.094                                                                  16      0.036                                                                  17      0.005                                                 ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 8                                                          ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clone cEFD64 on Chromosome 3                                              (D3S42 and D3S46)                                                              ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: cEFD64 was isolated by the HBV-3                           oligonucleotide.                                                               Polymorphism: AluI identifies a 9 allele VNTR                                  polymorphism with bands between 0.5 and 2.5 kb. RsaI,                          HaeIII, PstI, TaqI, EcoRI, BamHI, HindIII and PvuII also                       identify the polymorphism. Not polymorphic for BglII.                          Frequency: With RsaI, 85% heterozygosity was observed                          in 80 unrelated Caucasians.                                                    Chromosomal Localization: EFDA64 has been assigned to                          chromosome 3 by linkage analysis with APOD previously                          mapped to that chromosome.                                                     Mendelian Inheritance: Codominant segregation of the                           RsaI RFLP was observed in 40 three generation families.                        Other Comments: RFLPs were observed under normal                               hybridization and washing condition. Two TaqI insert                           fragments of cEFD64 have been subcloned in pUC18. They                         are designated as pEFD64.1 (D3S42, ATCC#59354, 14/4/88)                        and pEFD64.2 (D3S46, ATCC#57650, 11/6/87). Both                                hybridize to the VNTR locus.                                                   ______________________________________                                                          Allele  Frequency                                             ______________________________________                                         HinfI 1.0-5.5 kb 1       0.004                                                                  2       0.160                                                                  3       0.022                                                                  4       0.004                                                                  5       0.211                                                                  6       0.039                                                                  7       0.009                                                                  8       0.009                                                                  9       0.004                                                                  10      0.405                                                                  11      0.017                                                                  12      0.004                                                                  13      0.004                                                                  14      0.004                                                                  15      0.004                                                                  16      0.004                                                                  17      0.095                                                 ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 9                                                          ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clone pJCZ3.1 on Chromosome 19 (D19S20)                                   ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: A 4.5 kb PstI fragment from cJCZ3                          isolated by zeta-globin oligonucleotide was subcloned                          into the PstI site of pUC18.                                                   Polymorphism: HinfI identifies a >10 allele VNTR                               polymorphism with bands between 1.4-4.0 kb. MspI,                              TaqI, RsaI, BglII, BamHI, PstI and PvuII also identify                         the polymorphism.                                                              Frequency: With HinfI, 84% heterozygosity was observed                         in 120 unrelated Caucasians.                                                   Chromosomal Localization: JCZ3.1 has been assigned to                          chromosome 19 by multipoint linkage analysis with loci                         (LDLR, APOC2) known to span that region.                                       Mendelian Inheritance: Codominant segregation of the                           HinfI RFLP was observed in 54 three generation families.                       Other Comments: RFLPs were observed under normal                               hybridization and wash stringencies.                                           ______________________________________                                                          Allele  Frequency                                             ______________________________________                                         HinfI 1.5-4.5 kb 1       0.005                                                                  2       0.040                                                                  3       0.009                                                                  4       0.005                                                                  5       0.022                                                                  6       0.005                                                                  7       0.035                                                                  8       0.005                                                                  9       0.292                                                                  10      0.013                                                                  11      0.093                                                                  12      0.053                                                                  13      0.031                                                                  14      0.050                                                                  15      0.084                                                                  16      0.261                                                 ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 10                                                         ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clone cYNA13 on Chromosome 1 (D1S74)                                      ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: cYNA13 was isolated with YNH24-                            related oligonucleotide (GGAGCAGTGGGNNNTACA) from a                            human genomic cosmid library.                                                  Polymorphism: MspI identifies a more than 20 allele                            polymorphism with bands between 2.0 kb and 7.0 kb. RsaI,                       TaqI, BglII, PstI and PvuII also detect the                                    polymorphism.                                                                  Frequency: 97% heterozygosity was observed in 106                              unrelated Caucasians.                                                          Chromosomal Location: The locus has been assigned to                           distal chromosome 1 g by multipoint linkage analysis with                      loci (NRAS, PGM1, RH) known to span that region.                               Mendelian Inheritance: Codominant segregation                                  demonstrated in 53 three generation families.                                  Other Comments: RFLPs were observed after competitive                          hybridization with total human DNA. Digestion of cYNA13                        with BamHI yields 3 fragments of 18.0, 5.0 and 4.1 kb.                         ______________________________________                                                          Allele  Frequency                                             ______________________________________                                         AluI 1.5-13.0 kb 1       0.029                                                                  2       0.100                                                                  3       0.150                                                                  4       0.163                                                                  5       0.158                                                                  6       0.110                                                                  7       0.067                                                                  8       0.048                                                                  9       0.052                                                                  10      0.029                                                                  11      0.024                                                                  12      0.005                                                                  13      0.019                                                                  14      0.014                                                                  15      0.005                                                                  16      0.005                                                                  17      0.014                                                                  18      0.009                                                 ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 11                                                         ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clone pCMM86                                                              on Chromosome 17 q (D17S74)                                                    ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: A 4.3 kb MspI fragment from cCMM86                         isolated by myoglobin-2 oligonucleotide was subcloned                          into the AccI site of pUC18.                                                   Polymorphism: HinfI identifies a more than ten allele                          VNTR polymorphism with bands between 1.0 kb and 3.5 kb.                        HaeIII, TaqI, MspI, RsaI, and BglII also detect the                            polymorphism. Not polymorphic for PstI.                                        Frequency: 91% heterozygosity was observed in 604                              individuals.                                                                   Chromosomal Localization: The locus was assigned to                            chromosome 17 by multipoint linkage analysis with loci                         (D17S1, MYH2, D17Z1) known to span that region.                                Mendelian Inheritance: Codominant segregation has been                         observed in 50 three generation families.                                      Other Comments: RFLPs were observed under normal                               conditions of hybridization and washing. A subclone of                         cosmid CMM73 was shown to have substantial sequence                            homology with pCMM86. An example of redundancy in                              libraries.                                                                     ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 12                                                         ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clone pEKMDA2I on Chromosome 16 (D16S83)                                  ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: A 3.5 kb RsaI fragment of cEKMDA2                          was subcloned into the HincII site of pUC18.                                   Polymorphism: HinfI identified a >10 allele                                    polymorphism with bands between 0.8-1.5 kb. TaqI, RsaI,                        BglII, PstI, EcoRI, BamHI, HindIII and PvuII also                              identify the polymorphism.                                                     Frequency: 89% heterozygosity was observed in 102                              unrelated Caucasians.                                                          Chromosomal Localization: Assigned to chromosome 16 by                         linkage with HBZP1.                                                            Mendelian Inheritance: Codominant segregation was                              observed in 50 three generation families.                                      Other Comments: RFLPs observed under normal assay                              conditions. pEKMDA2I does not contain an AccI site;                            contains unique sites for EcoRI and HindIII; BamHI                             digestion yields 3.4 kb and 2.9 kb fragments; and PstI                         yields 3.4 kb and 1.0 kb fragments.                                            ______________________________________                                                          Allele  Frequency                                             ______________________________________                                         AluI 0.5-25 kb   1       .005                                                                   2       .009                                                                   3       .023                                                                   4       .023                                                                   5       .023                                                                   6       .069                                                                   7       .055                                                                   8       .097                                                                   9       .106                                                                   10      .161                                                                   11      .014                                                                   12      .194                                                                   13      .005                                                                   14      .134                                                                   15      .065                                                                   16      .018                                                  ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 13                                                         ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clone pJCZ67 on Chromosome 7 (D7S396)                                     ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: A 3.4 kb MspI fragment from cJCZ67                         identified by the zeta-globin oligonucleotide cloned                           into the AccI site of pUC18.                                                   Polymorphism: RsaI identifies greater than 10 alleles                          with bands between 3.0 and 6.0 kb. MspI, PstI, EcoRI,                          BamHI, BglII, PvuII and TaqI also detect the                                   polymorphism.                                                                  Frequency: With MspI, 83% heterozygosity was observed                          in 57 unrelated Caucasians.                                                    Chromosomal Localization: JCZ67 has been assigned to                           chromosome 7 by multipoint linkage analysis with loci                          (COL1A2, TCRG) known to span that region. It is ˜30 cm                   distal to YNB3.1R on 7 q.                                                      Mendelian Inheritance: Codominant segregation for the                          RsaI polymorphism has been observed in 29 three                                generation families.                                                           Other Comments: RFLPs were observed under normal                               hybridization and wash stringencies.                                           ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 14                                                         ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clone cMHZ47 on Chromosome 13 (D13S52)                                    ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: The cosmid was isolated by the                             YNZ22 oligonucleotide.                                                         Polymorphism: MspI identifies a >10 allele VNTR                                polymorphism with bands between 1.5-3.0 kb. TaqI,                              HaeIII, RsaI, PvuII, EcoRI, BamHI and HindIII also                             detect the polymorphism.                                                       Frequency: With MspI, 83% heterozygosity was observed                          in 99 unrelated Caucasians.                                                    Chromosomal Localization: MHZ47 has been assigned to                           distal chromosome 13 q by multipoint linkage analysis                          with loci (D13S6, D13S1, ESD, D13S4) known to span that                        region. It is ˜30 cM distal to p9A7 on 13 q.                             Mendelian Inheritance: Codominant segregation was                              observed in 50 three generation families.                                      Other Comments: RFLPs were observed under hybridiza-                           tion with total human DNA. Digestion of cMHZ47 with the                        following enzymes yields multiple fragments: HindIII-                          5.9 kb (doublet), 4.4 kb, 3.5 kb, 0.9 kb; EcoRI-8.2 kb,                        6.6 kb, 4.6 kb, 3.1 kb; and TaqI-3.8 kb, 2.0 kb, 1.8 kb,                       1.5 kb, 1.2 kb.                                                                ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 15                                                         ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clone pMLJ14 on Chromosome 14 q (D14S13)                                  ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: A 2.4 kb MspI fragment from cMLJ14                         isolated using the myoglobin-1 oligo was subcloned into                        the AccI site of pUC18.                                                        Polymorphism: RsaI identifies a >20 allele polymorphism                        with bands between 2-13 kb. MspI, AluI, HaeIII, BglII,                         TaqI, BamHI, EcoRI, HindIII, PvuII and PstI also detect                        the polymorphism.                                                              Frequency: With RsaI, 95% heterozygosity was observed                          among 120 unrelated Caucasians.                                                Chromosomal Localization: MLJ14 has been assigned to                           chromosome 14 by multipoint linkage analysis with loci                         (PI, D14S1, MHZ9, GM, IGHC) known to span that region.                         Mendelian Inheritance: Codominant segregation of the                           polymorphism was observed in 54 three generation                               families.                                                                      Other Comments: RFLPs were observed under hybridization                        with total human DNA. Digestion of pMLJ14 with EcoRI                           and HindIII yields a 2.7 kb and a 2.4 kb fragment                              consistent with unique sites for each enzyme.                                  ______________________________________                                                          Allele  Frequency                                             ______________________________________                                         AluI 1.0-6.5 kb  1       0.031                                                                  2       0.005                                                                  3       0.020                                                                  4       0.046                                                                  5       0.010                                                                  6       0.026                                                                  7       0.031                                                                  8       0.010                                                                  9       0.020                                                                  10      0.010                                                                  11      0.041                                                                  12      0.010                                                                  13      0.010                                                                  14      0.020                                                                  15      0.020                                                                  16      0.010                                                                  17      0.010                                                                  18      0.015                                                                  19      0.041                                                                  20      0.046                                                                  21      0.061                                                                  22      0.041                                                                  23      0.082                                                                  24      0.066                                                                  25      0.077                                                                  26      0.005                                                                  27      0.143                                                                  28      0.036                                                                  29      0.005                                                                  30      0.036                                                                  31      0.015                                                                  32      0.010                                                 ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 16                                                         ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clone pCMM6 on Chromosome 20 (D20S19)                                     ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: A 4.0 kb PstI fragment from cCMM6                          isolated by myoglobin-1 oligonucleotide was subcloned                          into the PstI site of pUC18.                                                   Polymorphism: TaqI identifies a more than 10 allele                            VNTR polymorphism with a band between 2.3 and 6.0 kb.                          MspI, RsaI, PvuII and PstI also show the same                                  polymorphism. Not polymorphic for BglII.                                       Frequency: With TaqI, 90% heterozygosity was observed                          in 78 unrelated Caucasians.                                                    Chromosomal Localization: The locus was assigned to                            chromosome 20 by linkage analysis with a locus (D20S1)                         known to be on that chromosome.                                                Mendelian Inheritance: Codominant segregation has been                         observed in 44 three generation families.                                      Other Comments: RFLPs were observed under normal                               conditions of hybridization and washing.                                       ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 17                                                         ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clone pCMM66 on Chromosome 14 (D14S22)                                    ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: A 4.8 kb TaqI fragment from cCMM66                         isolated by the myoglobin-2 oligonucleotide was                                subcloned into the AccI site of pUC18.                                         Polymorphism: PstI identifies a >10 allele VNTR                                polymorphism with a variable band between 4.0 and 6.0 kb.                      RsaI also shows the polymorphism. Not polymorphic for                          MspI or TaqI.                                                                  Frequency: The heterozygosity of the locus in 67                               unrelated Caucasians is 85% with PstI.                                         Chromosomal Localization: CMM66 has been assigned to                           chromosome 14 q by multipoint linkage analysis with loci                       (D14S1, GM, PI) known to span that region.                                     Mendelian Inheritance: Codominant segregation of the                           PstI RFLP was observed in 34 three generation families.                        Other Comments: RFLPS were observed under hybridiza-                           tion with total human DNA.                                                     ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 18                                                         ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clone pCMI327 (D17)                                                       ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: Isolated by the insulin                                    oligonucleotide and subcloned in pUC18.                                        Polymorphism: PvuII reveals a greater than 10 allele                           Polymorphism with bands between 2.5 and 4 kb.                                  Frequency: The locus shows a heterozygosity of 83%.                            Chromosomal Localization: CMI327 has been mapped to                            chromosome 17 by linkage analysis. CMI327 showed                               linkage to HtK9, THH59 and AC256.                                              Other Comments: RFLPs observed under normal conditions.                        ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 19                                                         ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clone cEFD52 on Chromosome 17 q (D17S26)                                  ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: The cosmid was isolated by the                             HBV-4 oligonucleotide.                                                         Polymorphism: PvuII best resolves a >10 allele VNTR                            polymorphism with bands between 5.0-10.0 kb. MspI,                             HaeIII, AluI, TaqI, RsaI, BglII and PstI also detect the                       polymorphism.                                                                  Frequency: With PvuII, 90% heterozygosity was observed                         in 96 unrelated Caucasians.                                                    Chromosomal Localization: EFD52 has been assigned to                           chromosome 17 q by multipoint linkage analysis with loci                       (D17Z1, TK1, THH59) known to span that region.                                 Mendelian Inheritance: Codominant segregation                                  demonstrated in 48 families.                                                   Other Comments: cEFD52 was pre-associated with excess                          human DNA prior to hybridization. Otherwise, RFLPs were                        observed under normal conditions of hybridization and                          washing.                                                                       ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 20                                                         ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clone pEFD139 (D22)                                                       ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: A 15 kb PvuII fragment obtained by                         the HBV-3 oligonucleotide subcloned into the HincII site                       Of pUC18.                                                                      Polymorphism: PvuII reveals an 8 allele polymorphism as                        do BglII and PstI. With PstI, the bands range from 5-                          8 kb.                                                                          Frequency: The locus heterozygosity is 85%.                                    Chromosomal location: EFD139 has been mapped by linkage                        analysis to HSA22.                                                             Other comments: RFLPs observed under normal conditions.                        ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 21                                                         ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clone pRMU3 on Chromosome 17 q (D17S24)                                   ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: A BamHI-SacI fragment from cRMU1                           was subcloned into the larger fragment following BamHI-                        SacI double digestion of pUC18.                                                Polymorphism: PvuII identifies a >10 allele                                    polymorphism with bands between 0.7 kb and 1.3 kb. TaqI                        works almost as well yielding >6 alleles between 2.2 and                       2.7 kb. MspI, RsaI, BamHI also detect the polymorphism.                        PstI and HindIII do not adequately resolve the                                 polymorphism.                                                                  Frequency: With TaqI, 85% heterozygosity was observed                          in 96 unrelated Caucasians.                                                    Chromosomal Localization: The locus has been assigned                          to distal chromosome 17 q by multipoint linkage analysis                       with loci (D17Z1, TK1, THH59) known to span that region.                       Mendelian Inheritance: Codominant segregation observed                         in 48 three generation families.                                               Other Comments: RFLPs were observed under normal                               hybridization stringency.                                                      ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 22                                                         ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clone pMCT118 on Chromosome 1 p (D1S80)                                   ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: A 3.1 kb PstI fragment from                                cMCT118 isolated with an oligonucleotide                                       (GTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGT) was subcloned into the PstI                             site of pUC18.                                                                 Polymorphism: HinfI identifies a >10 allele VNTR                               polymorphism with bands between 0.3 kb and 2.5 kb. RsaI,                       TaqI, MspI, PvuII, HaeIII and PstI also detect the                             polymorphism.                                                                  Frequency: 90% heterozygosity was observed with HinfI                          in 90 unrelated Caucasians.                                                    Chromosomal Localization: The locus has been assigned                          to distal chromosome 1 p by multipoint linkage analysis                        with loci known to span that region.                                           Mendelian Inheritance: Codominant segregation was                              observed in 45 three generation families.                                      Other Comments: RFLPs were observed under normal                               conditions of hybridization and washing.                                       ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 23                                                         ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clone pEFD126.3 on Chromosome 9 q (D9S7)                                  ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: A 4.2 kb BamHI fragment from                               cEFD126 isolated by the HBV-4 oligonucleotide was                              subcloned into the AccI site of pUC18.                                         Polymorphism: TaqI resolves a 5 allele VNTR                                    polymorphism with alleles between 1.5-2.0 kb. BglII,                           MspI, PstI, PvuII and RsaI also detect the polymorphism.                       Frequency: 71% heterozygosity was observed with TaqI in                        111 unrelated Caucasians.                                                      Chromosomal Localization: EFD126.3 has been assigned                           to distal chromosome 9 q by multipoint linkage analysis                        with loci (ABO, ABL, AKl, ORM) known to span that                              region.                                                                        Mendelian Inheritance: Codominant segregation observed                         in 56 three generation families.                                               Other Comments: The probe was pre-associated with                              excess human DNA prior to hybridization. Otherwise,                            RFLPs were observed under normal hybridization and wash                        stringencies.                                                                  ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 24                                                         ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clone cCMM77                                                              ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: cCMM77 was obtained by screening                           with the myo-2 oligonucleotide.                                                Polymorphism: PstI identifies a >7 allele VNTR                                 polymorphism. MspI, TaqI, RsaI, HindIII, EcoRI and                             PvuII also detect the polymorphism.                                            Frequency: The heterozygosity of the locus is 74%.                             Other Comments: RFLPs observed under normal conditions.                        ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 25                                                         ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clone pMCOB17 (D17)                                                       ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: cMCOB17 was obtained using an                              oligonucleotide configured to contain the nonamer                              consensus sequence.                                                            Polymorphism: A 7 allele polymorphism was observed with                        HinfI. PstI reveals the polymorphism with bands between                        1.2 kb and 2.1 kb.                                                             Frequency: The locus show heterozygosity of 89%.                               Chromosomal Localization: MCOB17 has been assigned to                          chromosome 17 by linkage analysis. The locus is linked                         to HtK9, THH59 and AC256.                                                      Other Comments: RFLPs were observed under normal                               conditions.                                                                    ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 26                                                         ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clone cYNA4 on Chromosome 2 (D2S50)                                       ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: The cosmid was isolated with                               YNH24-related oligonucleotide (GGAGCAGTGGGNNNTACA)                             from a human genomic library.                                                  Polymorphism: MspI identifies a more than 10 allele                            VNTR polymorphism with a band between 2.0 and 5.0 kb.                          AluI, HaeIII, HinfI, TaqI, RsaI, BglII, PvuII and PstI                         also identify the polymorphism.                                                Frequency: The heterozygosity of the locus in 120                              unrelated Caucasians is 85%.                                                   Chromosomal Localization: YNA4 has been assigned to                            chromosome 2 q, by multipoint linkage analysis with loci                       (CRYG, D2S3) known to span that region.                                        Mendelian Inheritance: Codominant segregation of the                           MspI RFLP was observed in 53 three generation families.                        Other Comments: RFLPs were observed after competitive                          hybridization with total human DNA.                                            ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 27                                                         ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clone pMHZ10 on Chromosome 9 q (D9S11)                                    ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: A 3.8 kb PstI fragment from cMHZ10                         isolated with the YNZ22 oligonucleotide was subcloned                          into the PstI site of pGEM4.                                                   Polymorphism: MspI identifies a 5 allele VNTR                                  polymorphism with alleles between 1.4-2.0 kb. EcoRI,                           HinfI, HindIII, PstI and PvuII also resolve the poly-                          morphism. RsaI and TaqI do not adequately resolve the                          polymorphism.                                                                  Frequency: With MspI, 83% heterozygosity was observed                          in 72 unrelated Caucasians.                                                    Chromosomal Localization: MHZ10 has been assigned to                           distal chromosome 9 q by multipoint linkage analysis with                      loci (ABO, AK1, ABL) known to span that region.                                Mendelian Inheritance: Codominant segregation of the                           MspI VNTR polymorphism was observed in 31 three                                generation families.                                                           Other Comments: The probe was pre-associated with                              excess human DNA prior to hybridization. Otherwise,                            RFLPs were observed under normal hybridization and wash                        stringencies.                                                                  ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 28                                                         ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clone pMHZ13 on Chromosome 9 q (D9S13)                                    ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: A 3.3 kb PvuII fragment from cMHZ13                        isolated by the YNZ22 oligonucleotide was subcloned into                       the HincII site of pGEM4.                                                      Polymorphism: PstI identifies an 8 allele VNTR                                 polymorphism with alleles between 1.6-2.3 kb. HindIII,                         RsaI and TaqI also resolve the polymorphism. MspI does                         not adequately resolve the polymorphism.                                       Frequency: 78% heterozygosity was observed with PstI in                        72 unrelated Caucasians.                                                       Chromosomal Localization: MHZ13 has been assigned to                           chromosome 9 q by multipoint linkage analysis with loci                        (ABO, AK1, ABL) known to span that region.                                     Mendelian Inheritance: Codominant segregation of the                           PstI VNTR polymorphism was observed in 31 three                                generation families.                                                           Other Comments: The probe was pre-associated with                              excess human DNA prior to hybridization. Otherwise,                            RFLPs were observed under normal hybridization and wash                        stringencies.                                                                  ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 29                                                         ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clone cTBQ7 (D10S28)                                                      ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: Obtained from a somatic cell hybrid                        which contained human chromosomes 10 and Y. Hybrid DNA                         was digested partially with Sau3AI and inserted into the                       BamHI site of pWE15.                                                           Polymorphism: MspI identifies a >20 allele VNTR locus                          with bands between 2 kb and 7 kb. TaqI, RsaI, BglII, PstI                      and PvuII also detect the polymorphism.                                        Frequency: 96% heterozygosity was observed in 61                               unrelated Caucasians.                                                          Chromosomal Localization: Assigned to chromosome 10 p by                       linkage analysis.                                                              Mendelian Inheritance: Codominant segregation of RFLP                          was observed in 32 three generation families.                                  Other Comments: RFLPs were observed after competitive                          hybridization with total human DNA.                                            ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 30                                                         ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clone cKKA39 on Chromosome 14 (D14S23)                                    ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: cKKA39 was isolated from a human                           genomic cosmid library by an oligonucleotide                                   (GGGTGGGGTGGGNNNNNG) configured after the                                      consensus.                                                                     Polymorphism: MspI identifies a more than 10 allele                            VNTR polymorphism with a band between 2.0 and 4.0 kb.                          HinfI, HaeIII, AluI, TaqI, RsaI, PstI, PvuII and BglII                         also show the polymorphism.                                                    Frequency: The heterozygosity of the locus is 83% in                           120 unrelated Caucasians.                                                      Chromosomal Localization: KKA39 has been assigned to                           distal chromosome 14 q by multipoint linkage analysis                          with loci (D14S1, GM, PI) known to span that region.                           Mendelian Inheritance: Codominant segregation of the                           RFLP was observed in 50 three generation families.                             Other Comments: RFLPs were observed under total human                          DNA prehybridization and hybridization.                                        ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 31                                                         ______________________________________                                         VNTR clone pYNZ21 on Chromosome 19 (D19)                                       ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: A 2.4 kb MspI fragment obtained by                         the zeta-globin oligonucleotide cloned into the AccI                           site of pUC18.                                                                 Polymorphism: MspI identifies a >10 allele polymorphism                        with a band between 0.8 kb and 3.2 kb. TaqI, AluI and                          HinfI also detect the polymorphism. Not polymorphic for                        RsaI.                                                                          Frequency: 77% heterozygosity among 120 American                               Caucasians.                                                                    Chromosomal Localization: YNZ21 shows linkage with                             D19S20 and D19S21 on 19 p.                                                     Mendelian Inheritance: Codominant segregation observed                         in 60 families.                                                                Other Comments: RFLPs were observed under normal assay                         conditions. Although YNZ21 is mapped to chromosome 19,                         the gene symbol is not yet designated.                                         ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 32                                                         ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clone pTHH33 on Chromosome 1 q (D1S81)                                    ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: A 5.6 kb EcoRI fragment from cTHH33                        isolated with HBV-2 oligonucleotide was subcloned into                         the EcoRI site of pUC18.                                                       Polymorphism: RsaI identifies a >10 allele VNTR                                polymorphism with bands between 4.0 kb and 6.5 kb. TaqI,                       BglII, PstI, PvuII, BamHI, EcoRI, MspI and HindIII also                        detect the polymorphism.                                                       Frequency: 85% heterozygosity was observed with RsaI in                        82 unrelated Caucasians.                                                       Chromosomal Localization: The locus has been assigned                          to distal chromosome 1 q by multipoint linkage analysis                        with loci known to span that region.                                           Mendelian Inheritance: Codominant segregation was                              observed in 41 three generation families.                                      Other Comments: RFLPs were observed under normal                               conditions of hybridization and washing.                                       ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 33                                                         ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clone pTHH59 on Chromosome 17 q (D17S4)                                   ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: A 3.8 kb PstI fragment from cTHH59                         identified by the HBV-1 oligonucleotide was subcloned                          into the PstI site of pBR322.                                                  Polymorphism: PvuII resolves a 6 allele VNTR                                   polymorphism with bands between 0.8 kb and 1.8 kb. TaqI                        resolves the system almost as well with alleles between                        3.0-4.0 kb. RsaI, PstI and EcoRI also detect the                               polymorphism. Not polymorphic for BglII.                                       Frequency: 76% heterozygosity was observed with PvuII                          in 100 unrelated Caucasians.                                                   Chromosomal Localization: The locus was assigned to                            chromosome 17 by somatic cell hybrid analysis and to 17 q                      by multipoint linkage analysis to a locus (TK1) known to                       be in that region of chromosome 17.                                            Mendelian Inheritance: Codominant segregation of the                           VNTR polymorphism has been observed in 50 three                                generation families.                                                           Other Comments: RFLPs were observed under normal                               hybridization conditions.                                                      ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 34                                                         ______________________________________                                         VNTR Clone cMLJ205                                                             ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: cMLJ205 was obtained using the myo-                        1 oligonucleotide.                                                             Polymorphism: A greater than 10 allele polymorphism is                         observed with MspI-digested genomic DNA. The bands                             range from 1.5 to 4.5 kb.                                                      Frequency: The heterozygosity of the locus is 83%                              Other Comments: RFLPs observed under normal conditions.                        ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE 35                                                         ______________________________________                                         MCT Series of VNTR Clones                                                      ______________________________________                                         Source/Description: cMCT4, cMCT14, cMCT15, cMCT32,                             cMCT96, cMCT103, cMC5105, cMCT113,, cMCT117, cMCT127                           cMCT129, cMCT136, cMCT144 and cMCT164 were obtained                            using an oligo containing alternating G and T residues.                        Frequency: Each of the clones showed a high level of                           heterozygosity at the respective locus.                                        Other Comments: RFLPs observed under standard                                  conditions. The clones of the MCT series hybridize to                          loci containing alleles that are generally less than 2 kb                      in size.                                                                       ______________________________________                                    

In the library screening procedures used herein and generally with any screening, it is not uncommon to obtain clones with substantial sequence homology. A library is prepared from the DNA of more than one cell or chromosome and some sequences may be under-represented or over-represented in the bank because of chance, physical characteristics of sequences themselves, etc. (We mentioned earlier of the apparent paucity of VNTR clones in the phage library maintained in a host recA⁺ host and the abundance of VNTR clones in the cosmid library maintained in a recA⁻ host.) The result is that clones may be exact duplicates, may be very similar except for one to a minority of base changes or they may overlap. Clones with substantial sequence homology that are derived from a single locus can be identified by filter hybridization of the clones to each other, comparing sequence data, comparing map locations, finding cosegregation of the clone sequences in multigeneration families, etc. Several clones were found to have substantial sequence homology and in fact identify the same locus, for example, both pCMM73 and pCMM86 map to D17S74 and pMLJ 14 cosegregates with pCMM101.

It will be appreciated that the range of oligos need not be restricted to sequences related to the consensus sequences of VNTR loci near insulin, zetaglobin, or myoglobin or related to HB virus. Consensus sequences from first generation clones can be used as probe for obtaining additional clones from a library. For example, cYNA13 and cYNA4 were obtained by screening with an oligo based on the consensus of pYNH24; and pMHZ10, pMHZ13 and pMHZ47 were obtained with an oligo based on the consensus of pYNZ22. In fact, any oligo with substantial sequence homology to the consensus sequence can be used for library screening. pMCT118 was obtained by screening with a 20 mer comprised of alternating G and T residues. cKKA39 was obtained by screening with an 18 mer having about 50% homology with the YNH24 18 mer.

It will be further appreciated by artisans skilled in cloning and gene mapping that different clones can detect polymorphism at a single locus. For example, if a pair of EcoRI sites define a 7 kb fragment that contains directly in the center of that fragment 1 kb of tandem repeats, there are 3 kb of sequences that flank the repeats on each side. If those flanking sequences are unique, then each 3 kb segment, or part thereof, could be used as probe to detect the same polymorphism when genomic DNA is digested with EcoRI. Table 35 presents the characterized clones of the invention and the gene locus from which the clone originated. The restriction fragment noted in the table represents the largest allele observed to date. The choice of enzyme and size of fragment are not meant to be limiting because restriction sites may be situated asymmetrically about the repeats or other restriction enzymes with sites flanking each locus that yield larger fragments may be found.

                  TABLE 36                                                         ______________________________________                                         Restriction Fragment Containing VNTR Sequence                                                         Restriction                                                                              Fragment                                      Clone       Locus      Enzyme    Size (kb)                                     ______________________________________                                         pYNH24      D2S44      PvuII     13                                            pCMM101     D14S13     HinfI     9.5                                           pYNZ22      D17S30     TaqI      3.3                                           cEFD64      D3S42/S46  HinfI     5.5                                           pJCZ3.1     D19S20     BamHI     6                                             cYNA13      D1S74      AluI      13                                            pCMM86      D17S74     TaqI      8.5                                           pEKMDA2I    D16S83     AluI      25                                            pJCZ16.2    D17S30     TaqI      3.3                                           pJCZ67      D7S396     EcoRI     9                                             cMHZ47      D13S52     TaqI      4                                             pMLJ14      D14S13     PstI      16.5                                          pCMM6       D20S19     TaqI      6                                             pCMM66      D14S22     PstI      6                                             pCMI327     D17        PvuII     4                                             cEFD52      D17S26     PvuII     10                                            pEFD139     D22        PstI      8                                             pRMU3       D17S24     TaqI      3.8                                           pMCT118     D1S80      HinfI     2.5                                           pEFD126.3   D9S7       TaqI      2                                             cCMM77                 PstI      6                                             pCMOB17     D17        PvuII     4                                             cYNA4       D2S50      HaeIII    6                                             pMHZ10      D9S11      MspI      2                                             pMHZ13      D9S13      PstI      2.3                                           cTBQ7       D10S28     TaqI      7                                             cKKA39      D14S23     RsaI      5.5                                           pYNZ21      D19        MspI      3.2                                           pTHH33      D1S81      RsaI      6.5                                           pTHH59      D17S4      TaqI      4                                             cMIJ205                MspI      4.5                                           ______________________________________                                    

Accordingly, any unique sequence contained within the 13 kb PvuII fragment that carries the D2S44 locus recognized by pYNH24 could serve as probe to that locus, including nucleic acids carrying D2S44 VNTR consensus sequences or carrying sequences that fall between D2S44 and a PvuII restriction site. It will be apparent to the artisan that not all sequences will find ubiquitous use. Thus, a unique sequence clone of the 13 kb PvuII fragment that is 12 kb from D2S44 may detect polymorphism if the genomic DNA is digested with PvuII but will not detect the polymorphism if the genomic DNA is digested with MspI which yields VNTR-containing fragments 4 kb or less in size.

Although clones of the repeats themselves are preferred over single copy flanking probes because of favorable hybridization kinetics, single copy flanking clones can be as advantageous as repeat clones by combining with methods of amplification. A preferred method of amplification is the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (Saiki et al. Science (1985) 230, 1350). The PCR amplifies in vitro defined nucleic acid fragments. Thus, smaller amounts of DNA are required or in this case, the signal from a PCR-amplified flanking unique sequence can be obtained following hybridization as distinctly and quickly as that obtained when using nucleic acid fragments that hybridize to the repeats. Briefly, the procedure requires the base sequence of a flanking fragment and synthesis of oligonucleotides complementary to sequences on opposite strands up to 2000 base pairs apart. The amplification occurs in oligonucleotide excess by repeated cycles of denaturation-hybridization-synthesis. The nucleic acid fragment amplified is delimited by the sequences to which the oligos hybridize. Mullis & Faloona, Meth Enz (1987) 155, 335.

A further advantage of the VNTR clones described herein is obtained by combining the method of the PCR using loci that with selected restriction enzymes yield alleles no more than 2000 bp in length and preferably no more than 1000 bp in length. The PCR works well for amplifying smaller fragments of DNA. Thus, oligonucleotides are configured after unique sequences immediately flanking on each side of the cluster of repeats and allelic differences can be revealed absent hybridization. With locus-specific oligos and sufficient amplification, bands are revealed on ethidium bromide-stained gels following electrophoretic separation. Under appropriate conditions, genetic identification of an individual by this method is obtained within a day of DNA extraction.

Whereas the PCR enhances sensitivity by amplifying target DNA in vitro, an alternative strategy is to enhance signal by concentrating more label at the target site. That can be achieved for example by attaching multiple reporter molecules to the clone; by using multiple labeled clones to a target sequence; by combining those approaches, namely, multiple reporter molecules on multiple clones to a target sequence; by employing labeled secondary clones specific to unique sequences fashioned to the primary clone that hybridizes to a target sequence (Dunn & Hassell, Cell (1977) 12, 23); or amplification of hybridized clones particularly recombinant RNAs that serve as templates for Qβ replicase (Chu et al., Nucl Acid Res (1986) 19, 5591).

In the indirect or sandwich assay of Dunn & Hassell, a bifunctional clone is produced, for example containing YNH24 sequences and SV40 sequences. The clone is hybridized to genomic DNA and bound molecules visualized following a subsequent hybridization with highly labeled SV40 clones. The labeled clones can themselves serve as substrate. This would in effect result in a network of hybridized sequences each carrying one or more reporter molecules.

The Qβ replicase system relies on the prolific autocatalytic capability of the RNA-directed RNA polymerase, Qβ replicase, to synthesize in an exponential reaction mechanism a large number of product RNA fragments from a small number of template strands. Million-fold increases of RNA are not uncommon. Foreign sequences that are inserted into a Qβ replicon enable hybridization to genomic target sequences. Then the replicon is amplified in the RNA polymerase reaction and the product RNAs are visualized. (Lizardi et al., Biotech (1988) 6, 1197).

In order to accomplish the identification of individuals or tissue samples within the scope of the present invention, one or more loci of interest are analyzed using standard filter hybridization technologies. As was discussed previously, a VNTR locus having multiple alleles which occur frequently in the population is preferred.

In order to initiate the testing procedure, a tissue sample is obtained. It will be appreciated that the sample may comprise any type of tissue. For most applications, it is likely that blood would be the tissue of choice. This would be true in the case of paternity testing and the like. However, other tissues, including skin, semen, hair and other body fluids or tissues may be acceptable for specific purposes. Using the method of the present invention no more than approximately 10 ul of blood is required in order to perform the testing procedure. DNA can be obtained from any nucleated cell that is live, dead or preserved.

The testing procedure essentially requires that the cells in the tissue sample be lysed and that the DNA obtained from the lysed cells be isolated and cleaved with a restriction enzyme. It should be appreciated that because the variability at a VNTR locus arises from copy number differences of tandem repeats, any restriction endonuclease with sites flanking the repeats will reveal the polymorphism. The enzymes noted in the specification are representative and are non-limiting examples of enzymes which can be used for a VNTR clone. In a preferred embodiment, restriction enzymes with sites very close to the cluster of repeats are desired. The result is smaller restriction fragments which are easier to discriminate on agarose gels. The DNA is then applied to gel and electrophoresed using widely known and generally accepted procedures. The DNA is then denatured such that it exists in the single strand form.

At this point, the DNA is transferred to a membrane according to the technique of Southern (J Mol Biol (1975) 98, 503) which is widely practiced and accepted in the art. Alternatively, a PCR, Qβ replicase or other amplification procedure as discussed above could be utilized.

The DNA thus isolated and denatured is hybridized with one or more VNTR clones of the type described above. Several such clones will be discussed in additional detail below. Following wash, the location of the labeled nucleic acid fragment is determined using techniques such as an autoradiogram of the membrane filter. It will be appreciated that while radiolabeling of the clone is emphasized herein, labeling by other methods is acceptable. Labeling with fluorescent dyes or with biotinylated nucleotides, for example, has worked as well as radiolabeled probes. It is only necessary that the location of the hybridized clone be determinable.

The specific location of the hybridized duplex provides information concerning the particular characteristics of the DNA. This can be seen by the autoradiograms which comprise FIGS. 1 through 6 herein which are described in additional detail below. By employing multiple clones for multiple VNTR loci, it is possible to provide a very accurate genetic identification of an individual from which the tissue samples were obtained. Thus, it is possible to compare the results with that individual or with possible parents or offspring of the individual to identify, not only the individual, but the paternity of the individual.

The present invention can determine paternity with virtual certainty. Multiple clones of multiple VNTR loci can be employed. Each locus chosen will have multiple alleles occurring at high frequency in the population. Thus, by employing a plurality of clones, the possibility of two individuals producing the same data becomes essentially zero.

The same technique is employed when it is desired to link a tissue sample with a specific individual. For example, if a sample of tissue or body fluid is found at a crime scene using the present invention, that sample can be tied precisely to a particular individual.

Similarly, in the case of bone marrow transplants it is desirable to determine whether an individual's cancerous cells have begun to regenerate. Thus, cells are removed and analyzed according to the present invention. If the results from the bone marrow match those from the patient, it is possible that cancerous cells are reappearing. Similarly, if the results from the bone marrow do not match the recipient, it is clear that only transplanted cells exist.

Numerous other application are also possible, some of which have been discussed above. These may include, for example, determining monozygosity versus dizygosity in twins, identifying potential organ donors, forensic applications, identification of diseased genes, and mapping of the genome.

EXAMPLES

The following examples illustrate aspects of the present invention. In the examples, standard procedures such as those described in Maniatis et al., supra; Meth Enz, supra; Wyman & White, supra; and Litt & White, supra were followed.

Example 1

Oligonucleotides were synthesized according to the sequence of genes known to behave as VNTR loci linked to insulin, zeta-globin, or myoglobin), or with sufficient sequence homology to behave potentially as VNTR loci. End-labeling of the oligos was carried out according to standard procedures.

One to two genome equivalents (i.e., 75,000-150,000) of a cosmid library were plated out and transferred to nylon filters. Hybridization buffer contained 5X SSC, 0.05M Tris-HC1, at pH 7.4, 1X Denhardt's solution and 0.01 mg/ml yeast tRNA. The sequence and assay conditions for each oligo were those listed in Table 1.

Three hundred seventy-two cosmids ascertained by the oligonucleotides were tested for polymorphism using genomic DNAs of 6 unrelated individuals. Samples were digested initially with any of a variety of restriction endonucleases, including MspI, TaqI, RsaI, BamHI, BglII, PstI, EcoRI, HindIII, PvuII, HinfI, HaeIII and AluI. The goal was to identify the restriction enzyme that revealed the largest number of alleles as well as the smallest, and therefore most precisely resolved, DNA fragments. Restriction enzyme digests, agarose gel electrophoresis, DNA blotting to nylon membrane, radiolabeling of VNTR clones, and filter hybridization assays were carried out according to standard protocols. FIG. 1 sets forth a reproduction of autoradiographs of representative data. The photographs illustrate patterns typical of a VNTR locus as revealed by hybridization with an entire cosmid.

Example 2

The segregation of VNTR alleles at the YNH24 (D2S44) locus in a three generation family is represented in FIG. 2. DNA samples prepared from peripheral blood were done according to standard procedures. Restriction digests were done with MspI. Three micrograms of each digest were loaded per lane and the fragments separated. Conventional autoradiography revealed the alleles detected by the clone. The pattern was consistent with segregation of a codominant trait with 8 alleles present in that family.

Example 2 demonstrates the Mendelian inheritance of the gene detected by pYNH24. The alleles, and therefore the chromosome regions within which they are imbedded, can be followed unambiguously through the family. For example, the maternal grandmother is heterozygous at the YNH24 locus having alleles 1 and 5. Allele 1 is inherited by her daughter, who passes it onto four of her children. It will be appreciated that if there were a dominant disease gene linked tightly with the YNH24 locus, the disease would be expressed in each of those individuals.

Example 3

Example 3 depicts the characterization of allele frequency of selected VNTR loci. Clones that detected large numbers of alleles in the preliminary survey were retested with other restriction enzymes. DNA samples from unrelated individuals were cleaved according to manufacturers' recommendations. The digested DNA samples were electrophoresed on agarose gels and transferred to nylon membrane. FIG. 3 includes autoradiograms which represent data related to JCZ16.2 and EFD52. The data show clearly that VNTR loci identified by those clones carry multiple alleles. Accordingly, the multiple allelic VNTR locus identified can be useful in genetic identification and paternity testing.

Example 4

Example 4 demonstrates how paternity can be determined using VNTR loci. Initially, the paternity index and probability of paternity are determined. X equals the chance an alleged father could be the biological father of a child. Y equals the chance a random person could be the biological father of the child. The resulting paternity index (PI=X/Y) is a measure of the likelihood that the alleged father is the biological father. The Bayesian probability of paternity includes an a priori probability which is usually 0.5. Thus, the formula is modified to read PI=1/(1+Y/X). (It is assumed that the mother is the biological mother).

In the present example, a mother, child, and two putative fathers were screened using VNTR clones of the present invention. In particular, pYNH24, pYNZ22, pCMM101, pJCZ3.1, and pEKMDA2I were used. The data obtained using those clones are summarized below. (The X and Y values are calculated based on Mendelian inheritance of the alleles. The alleles are numbered for identification, thus, the mother was heterozygous for alleles 33 and 86 at the YNH24 locus.)

    ______________________________________                                         Mother      Child   Father 1 Father 2                                                                              X    Y                                     ______________________________________                                         YNH24   33    86    33  35  35  35   25  42   1.0   0.0331                     YNZ22    4     9     4   3   3   3    5   9   1.0  0.169                       CMM101   9    28     9   4   4  20   22  28   0.5  0.027                       JCZ3.1  16    12    16   9   9   9   16  16   1.0  0.292                       EKMDA2I  4     8     4   4   4   9    8  10   0.5  0.023                       ______________________________________                                          Cumulative Value 0.250 1.01 × 10.sup.-6                            

It is evident that Father 1 is determined, of virtual certainty, to be the father of the child. The alleles in the left-hand column for the child were inherited form the mother. Each of the alleles in the right-hand column were inherited from the child's father. Thus, for YNH24, the child inherited 33 from the mother and 35 from the father. Father 1 is homozygous for 35 and father 2 carries 2 different alleles at that locus.

Applying the calculations set forth above, the paternity index is X/Y=2.46×10⁵. The probability of paternity is therefore 99.9996%. The probability that Father 2 is the actual father is virtually zero.

Accordingly, it will be appreciated that the present invention provides the capability of accurate and precise paternity identification.

Example 5

VNTR clones were used to determine whether a suspect in a rape case could indeed have been the alleged rapist.

Upon investigation of a rape, a sample of semen and a sample of hair were recovered. Later, a suspect was arrested. The hair, semen, and a sample of blood were screened according to the protocols described herein. Clones pMLJ14, pYNH24, pCMM101, and pJCZ3.1 were employed. The results from the screening are presented in the following chart with the numbers corresponding to particular alleles revealed by the DNA clones.

    ______________________________________                                                 Hair          Semen        Suspect                                     ______________________________________                                         MLJ14     26     7         1  29      1  29                                    YNH24     10    14        22  31     22  31                                    CMM101    18    11        24   5     24   5                                    JCZ3.1     5    15        11  16     11  16                                    ______________________________________                                    

Based on the results of the above test, it is possible to conclude that the semen sample originated with the suspect, whereas the hair did not. It can be seen that each allele of the semen sample matched the blood sample of the suspect whereas none of the alleles from the hair sample matched the suspect. Accordingly, it can be determined that the suspect is indeed the rapist.

Thus, it will be appreciated that the present invention provides clones and methods for use in forensic applications.

Example 6

It is desirable to determine whether cancerous cells have regenerated in the marrow of a bone marrow transplant recipient. VNTR clones are useful in that respect.

In order to make the determination, a blood sample and marrow sample were acquired. DNA of the two samples were screened using clones pEKMDA2I, cEFD64, cYNA13, and pCMM101. The following results were obtained.

    ______________________________________                                                    Recipient       Marrow                                              ______________________________________                                         EKMDA2I      8      12         16  12                                          EFD64.2      5      17         10   5                                          YNA13        5       4          2  17                                          CMM101       25     11          2  22                                          ______________________________________                                    

It can be concluded from the results that there has been no significant regeneration of the cancerous cells in the bone marrow.

Example 7

Paternity testing was done using clone pJCZ3.1 and restriction enzyme HinfI. Samples of DNA were obtained from the mother, fetus and purported father. The result of the paternity test is illustrated in FIG. 4. In the left lane is the result from analysis of the mother's DNA, in the middle lane is the result of the analysis of the fetus, and in the right lane is the result of the analysis of the father. It can be seen from FIG. 4 that VNTR alleles from the mother and father were inherited by the fetus.

Example 8

Paternity testing was done using clone pJCZ16.2 and restriction enzyme HinfI. Samples of DNA were obtained from the mother, fetus, and purported father. The result of the paternity test is illustrated in FIG. 5. In the left lane is the result from analysis of the mother's DNA, in the middle lane is the result of the analysis of the fetus, and in the right lane is the result of the analysis from the father. It can be seen from FIG. 5 that VNTR alleles from both the mother and father were inherited by the fetus.

Example 9

Paternity testing was done using clone pYNH24 and the restriction enzyme AluI. Samples of DNA were obtained form the mother, fetus, and the purported father. The result of the paternity test is illustrated in FIG. 6. In the left lane is the result from analysis of the mother's DNA, in the middle lane is the result of the analysis of the fetus, and in the right lane is the result of the analysis of the father. It can be seen from FIG. 6 that VNTR alleles from both the mother and father were inherited by the fetus.

Example 10

A flanking clone not containing the tandem repeats can detect a VNTR locus if the restriction fragment contains the unique flanking sequence and the cluster of repeats. pCMM101 and pCMM66 originated from the same cosmid. pMLJ14 originated from another cosmid. Mapping data revealed that the three clones are syntenic with chromosome 14 and in fact the clones cosegregated in three generation families. Subsequent restriction mapping and sequencing of the clones revealed identity of pCMM101 and pMLJ14. The inserts of those clones carry repeat sequences. pCMM66, however does not carry repeat sequences and arose from a region flanking the cluster of tandem repeats. Whereas pCMM101 and pMLJ14 detect the polymorphism in MspI-digested genomic DNA, pCMM66 does not. The reason is the flanking sequence recognized by pCMM66 falls outside the smaller MspI VNTR-containing fragments.

Example 11

An ideogram and sex-specific linkage maps of HSA14 (human chromosome 14) are depicted in FIG. 7. Ten genes were mapped by a combination of techniques to 14q32.1-tel. The genes PI and MCOC12 delimit that region which likely contains more genes than presented in the figure. The relative distances between the genes are related to the likelihood of crossover between the genes. The closer the genes the less likely a crossover between those genes. D14S22, which is defined by pMLJ14, is 19 cM from PI and 2 cM from CMM62. At the bottom is a diagram showing the most likely gene order as determined from segregation analysis of those genes in varying combinations within families. The ratios bridging adjacent genes represent the odds that the presented gene order is real.

Example 12

An ideogram and sex-specific linkage maps of HSA17 are depicted in FIG. 8. In this case, the gene loci are not restricted to a specific region but instead are dispersed along the length of the chromosome. Thus, 144-D6(21) maps to 17p13, 3.6(11) maps to the centromeric region and KKA35(14) maps near the telomere of 17 q. Five VNTR loci map to chromosome 17-D17S30 (YNZ22), D17S74 (CMM86), D17S4 (THH59), D17S26 (EFD52) and D1724 (RMU3).

Example 13

A partial base sequence of a CMM101 allele has been obtained by producing a series of DNase I deletion fragments and sequencing the opposite strands by the chain termination method of Sanger et al., supra. The following is a sequence from one of the fragments: polylinker-TC TCCACCTCAGCNNC TCCACCTCAGCCCCC TCCACCTCAGCCCCC TC TCCACCTCAGCCGNC TCCACCTCAGCCCCC NC TCCACCTCAGCCGCC TCCACCTCAG . . . . The repeat units are underlined and set off by spaces. Note that the unit contains 14 or 15 bases and that some monomers contain an additional dinucleotide. The consensus of the complementary strand inferred from the fragment noted above and other fragments is 5'-GGGGGCTGAGGTGGA-3'.

Example 14

A partial base sequence of an EFD126.3 allele is as follows: flanking-GACCAAGGGGAAGA AGTCAAGTTGGGGGA GACCAAGGGGAAGA GGTTGGGGTGGGGA GACCAAGGGGAAGA GGTGTTTGTGGGGGA GACCAAGGGGAAGA GGCNTGGGGGTGGA . . . . The repeat at that locus is a 28-30 bp unit with an apparent hierarchic order. Each unit is itself comprised of two units, a conserved 14 bp region, delimited by spaces above, and a divergent 14-16 bp region, delimited by spaces and underlined above. An example of the conserved region of one of the units is: 5'-GACCAAGGGGAAGA. The adjacent divergent region of that unit is GGTTGGGGTGGGGA-3.

SUMMARY

Most of the VNTR clones that fall within the scope of the present invention have been isolated from cosmid libraries by hybridization with particular oligonucleotide probes. Examples of the oligonucleotides include those based on the consensus sequences of VNTR loci near zeta-globin, myoglobin, and insulin, and related to hepatitis B virus.

The clones of the present invention identify specific loci within the genome. By choosing clones that identify sites having multiple alleles which occur frequently in the population, a system is developed easily whereby an individual, or part thereof, can be identified with virtual certainty. For example, using five different ten allele loci in a panmictic population in which each allele has a frequency of about 0.1, the frequency of individuals with a specific pattern is expected to be no greater than 1 in 300 million. As a result, misidentification is unlikely.

The accurate method of genetic determination has usefulness in several different contexts. As mentioned above, specific genetic identification is useful to determine paternity. Other areas in which the system of the present invention will find application include determining monozygosity versus heterozygosity in twins, monitoring bone marrow transplants, forensics, identification of disease genes and gene mapping. In each of those contexts, identification with virtual certainty is provided.

It will be appreciated that the methods and compositions of the present invention are capable of being incorporated in the form of a variety of embodiments, only a few of which have been illustrated and described above. The invention may be embodied in other specific forms without departing from its spirit or essential characteristics. The described embodiments are to be considered in all respects only as illustrative and not restrictive. The scope of the invention is, therefore, indicated by the appended claims rather than the foregoing description. All changes which come within the meaning and range of equivalency of the claims are to be embraced within the scope of the invention. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method for genetically identifying individuals comprising the steps of:(a) obtaining DNA isolated from a sample from an individual; (b) cleaving the DNA with a restriction enzyme to produce DNA fragments; (c) electrophoretically fractionating the DNA fragments by size; (d) denaturing the DNA fragments such that they exist in single-stranded form; (e) hybridizing the DNA fragments with a labeled single-stranded nucleic acid fragment, said fragment comprising a nucleic acid fragment selected from the group consisting of pYNH24, pCMM6, pCMM66, cCMM77, pCMM86, pMLJ14, pYNZ22, pJCZ3.1, pJCZ16.2, pJCZ67, pCMM101, cEFD64, cEFD52, pEFD139, pEFD126.3, pTHH59, cMHZ47, cYNA13, cYNA4, cKKA39, pMCT118, pCMI327, pEKMDA2I, pRMU3, pMCOB17, cTBQ7, VNTR-containing fragments thereof and nucleic acid fragments which are capable of specifically hybridizing to one of the loci specified thereby; and (f) detecting the location of the labelled nucleic acid fragment, whereby a genetic identification of an individual is performed.
 2. The method of claim 1 further comprising the step of comparing the location of the nucleic acid fragment of DNA from an unknown individual with the location of the nucleic acid fragment of a DNA from a known individual in order to determine whether both DNA samples originated with the same individual.
 3. A method for genetically identifying individuals comprising the steps of:(a) obtaining DNA isolated from a sample from an individual; (b) cleaving the DNA with a restriction enzyme to produce DNA fragments; (c) electrophoretically fractionating the DNA fragments by size; (d) denaturing the DNA fragments such that they exist in single-stranded form; (e) hybridizing the DNA fragments with a labeled single-stranded nucleic acid fragment, said fragment comprising a nucleic acid fragment selected from the group consisting of cMLJ205, pYNZ21, pTHH33, pMHZ10 and pMHZ13.
 4. The method of claim 3 wherein a plurality of nucleic acid fragments are utilized.
 5. The method of claim 3 further comprising the step of comparing the location of the nucleic acid fragment of DNA from an unknown individual with the location of the nucleic acid fragment of a DNA from a known individual in order to determine whether both DNA samples originated with the same individual.
 6. The method of claim 3 for identifying an individual wherein said sample comprises DNA isolated from a blood sample and a sample of tissue left at a crime scene.
 7. The method for genetically identifying individuals as defined in claim 3 wherein said tissue sample is from the group consisting of hair, semen, muscle, skin, or internal organ.
 8. The method for genetically identifying individuals as defined in claim 3 wherein said tissue sample is blood.
 9. A method for determining paternity comprising the steps of:(a) obtaining DNA isolated from a sample from the possible parent and from a sample from the possible child; (b) cleaving each DNA with the same restriction enzyme to produce two sets of DNA fragments, one set of the parent and one set of the child; (c) electrophoretically fractionating each set of DNA fragments by size; (d) denaturing the DNA fragments such that they exist in single-stranded form; (e) hybridizing at least one specific VNTR locus within each DNA set by hybridizing said DNA with a labelled nucleic acid fragment selected from the group consisting of pYNH24, pCMM6, pCMM66, cCMM77, pCMM86, cEFD64, cEFD52, pEFD139, pEFD126.3, pTHH59, cMHZ47, cYNA13, cYNA4, cKKA39, pMCT118, pCMI327, pEKMDA2I, pRMU3, pMCOB17, cTBQ7, VNTR-containing fragments thereof and nucleic acid fragments which are capable of specifically hybridizing to one of the loci specified thereby; (f) detecting the location of the labeled nucleic acid fragment in each DNA set; and (g) comparing the locations of the labeled fragments in order to determine whether the VNTR locus of the possible child could have been donated by the possible parent.
 10. A method for determining paternity comprising the steps of:(a) obtaining DNA isolated from a sample from the possible parent and from a sample from the possible child; (b) cleaving each DNA with the same restriction enzyme to produce two sets of DNA fragments, one set of the parent and one set of the child; (c) electrophoretically fractionating each set of DNA fragments by size; (d) denaturing the DNA fragments such that they exist in single-stranded form; (e) hybridizing at least one specific VNTR locus within each DNA set by hybridizing said DNA with a labelled nucleic acid fragment selected from the group consisting of cMLJ205, pYNZ21, pTHH33, pMHZ10 and pMHZ13.
 11. The method of claim 9 wherein a plurality of nucleic acid fragments are utilized.
 12. A process for the genetic identification of individuals that comprises the steps of:(a) synthesizing oligonucleotides complementary to sequences of the repeat clusters of a VNTR locus or of the regions immediately flanking said repeat clusters that will enable amplification, said VNTR locus selected from the group consisting of CMLJ205, pYNZ21, pTHH33, pMHZ10 and pMHZ13; (b) digesting genomic DNA of an individual with a restriction endonuclease that produces among the plurality of nucleic acid fragments a fragment that contains said cluster of repeats and said flanking sequences; (c) performing said amplification using said oligonucleotides with said genomic DNA; (d) separating electrophoretically said plurality of nucleic acid fragments by size; and (e) treating said separated nucleic acid fragments so that said fragments can be visualized, whereby a genetic identification of an individual is produced.
 13. The process of claim 12 wherein said amplification of target genomic sequences is performed by a polymerase chain reaction.
 14. The process of claim 12 wherein said VNTR locus following restriction endonuclease digestion of genomic DNA yields VNTR-containing fragments of less than 500 base pairs.
 15. The process of claim 12 wherein said treatment of nucleic acid fragments is exposure to ethidium bromide.
 16. The process of claim 12 wherein said amplification is performed by increasing the quantity of labeled reporter molecules hybridized at a target genomic sequence.
 17. The process of claim 16 wherein said amplification of labeled reporter molecules is performed by a Qβ replicase reaction.
 18. The method of claim 1 wherein a plurality of nucleic acid fragments are utilized.
 19. The method of claim 1 for identifying an individual wherein said sample comprises DNA isolated from a blood sample and a sample of transplanted bone marrow.
 20. The method of claim 1 for identifying an individual wherein said sample comprises DNA isolated from a blood sample and sample of tissue left at a crime scene.
 21. A method for genetically identifying individuals as defined in claim 1 wherein said tissue sample is from the group consisting of hair, semen, muscle, skin, or internal organ.
 22. A method for genetically identifying individuals as defined in claim 1 wherein said sample is blood.
 23. The method of claim 9 wherein a plurality of nucleic acid fragments are utilized.
 24. A process for the genetic identification of individuals that comprises the steps:(a) synthesizing oligonucleotides complementary to sequences of the repeat clusters of a VNTR locus or of the regions immediately flanking said repeat clusters that will enable amplification, said VNTR locus selected from the group consisting of YNH24, CMM6, CMM66, CMM77, CMM86, MLJ14, YNZ22, JCZ3.1, JCZ16.2, JCZ67, CMM101, EFD64, EFD52, EFD139, EFD126.3, THH59, MHZ47, MHZ13, YNA13, YNA4, KKA39, MCT118, CMI327, EKMDA2I, RMU3, MCOB17 and CTBQ7; (b) digesting genomic DNA of an individual with a restriction endonuclease that produces among the plurality of nucleic acid fragments a fragment that contains said cluster of repeats and said flanking sequences; (c) performing said amplification using said oligonucleotides with said genomic DNA; (d) separating electrophoretically said plurality of nucleic acid fragments by size; and (e) treating said separated nucleic acid fragments so that said fragments can be visualized, whereby a genetic identification of an individual is produced.
 25. The process of claim 24 wherein said amplification of target genomic sequences is performed by a polymerase chain reaction.
 26. The process of claim 24 wherein said VNTR locus following restriction endonuclease digestion of genomic DNA yields VNTR-containing fragments of less than 500 base pairs.
 27. The process of claim 24 wherein said treatment of nucleic acid fragments is exposure to ethidium bromide.
 28. The process of claim 24 wherein said amplification is performed by increasing the quantity of labeled reporter molecules hybridized at a target genomic sequence.
 29. The process of claim 28 wherein said amplification of labeled reporter molecules is performed by a Qβ replicase reaction. 